Learning & process Essay Example for Free

Learning process EssayLearning is a never ending process. When a person graduates from primary or tertiary education, he or she should never be contented with the k outrightledge that he or she has acquired. Instead, there should always be a sense of longing, thriving, and enthusiasm for more knowledge. An bighearted is just equally capable as a person in his prime years to make and acquire knowledge. One should not consider his age as an obstacle to nurture and nourish his brain with more information that are yet to be acquired. A person should never be contented with whatever little knowledge he has. An adult who enters graduate school has more advantages than disadvantages. An adult would begin more experiences in life and in living compared with others, and this would enable the former to connect his experiences with his education. In other words, there would be a more possible approach to learning. Often, people who enter graduate school with little experience from thei r jobs would tend to be more melodic themelistic with their views about(predicate) the theories presented in class.The decision of an adult to enter into graduate school to obtain a masters degree falls in between the life stages of Transcending and Life Calling. These stages talks about a persons journey in life wherein he has already mastered his craft and already knows his strengths and weaknesses. As such, he would now social function this knowledge to achieve his goal in life. Thereafter, this person may now realize his purpose and this is associated with his life calling.The reason for living of the person becomes clear, and he is now ready to make radical steps for the realization of his goal. The decision to enter into graduate school is not easy. But, a person who has a clear idea of what he wants in life would not think twice about making this decision. The person would view graduate school as a means, a tool to enable him to achieve his goal to make him successful.Reso urces Manifest Your Potential. 2004-2005. The Eight Stages of Life. Retrieved from http//www. manifestyourpotential. com/en/lifeskills/lifestages/eight_stages. htm

Discounted Cash Flow Techniques Essay Example for Free

Discounted Cash Flow Techniques EssayA brief tutorial on Excel financial functions (problems to follow)You may view the following Excel, built-in financial functions helpful when analyzing the problems below. (To access these functions, select Insert, Functions, and choose Financial.)=PV(rate, nper, pmt, fv, type) returns the present value of a series of cash flows.=FV(rate, nper, pmt, pv, type) returns the approaching value of a series of cash flows.=PMT(rate, nper, pv, fv, type) calculates the periodic holdment for a lend establish on constant payments and a constant reside rate. =NPER(rate, pmt, pv, fv, type) returns the number of periods for an investment based on periodic, constant payments and a constant interest rate.=NPV(rate, range) returns the net present value of an investment based on a discount rate and a series of future payments (negative values) and income (positive values). (Warning By convention, NPV calculates the net present value one period before the h ead start cash flow.)=IRR(range, guess) returns the internal rate of return for a series of cash flows.In these functions,rate = the discount, or interest rate.nper = number of periods.pmt = one-year uniform payment.fv = future value, or future cash flow.type is a logical value allowing you to specify if cash flows occur at the end or the beginning of the period. A value of 1 indicates beginning of period, 0 or omitted indicates end of period.pv = present value.range = the cells on your spreadsheet containing the cash flows you want to analyze. For example, if the cash flows are in the first-class honours degree 10 rows of column A, the entry for range would be a1a10.guess = your guess as to the internal rate of return. This helps the computer get started and may be remaining blank.An example Suppose you want to know the present value of $100 per course for 19 years and $500 at the end of the 19th year when the interest rate is 13 percent.Select a spreadsheet cell and enter =PV( 0.13,19,100,500). Excel will return ($742.83). This is the amount one should be willing to pay today to receive the indicated stream of cash flows when the interest rate is 13 percent.Problems1) An investment costing $50,000 promises an after tax cash flow of $18,000 per year for 6 years.a. distinguish the investments accounting rate of return and its payback period.b. Find the investments net present value at a 15 percent discount rate.c. Find the investments profitability index at a 15 percent discount rate.d. Find the investments internal rate of return.e. Assuming the required rate of return on the investment is 15 percent, which of the above figures of merit indicate the investment is attractive? Which indicate it is unattractive?2) A $1,000 par value, 10 percent coupon stick around matures in 20 years. If the price of the bond is $1,196.80, what is the yield to maturity on the bond? Assume interest is paid annually.3) Ten years ago you invested $1,000 for 10 shares of Trublo ck common communication channel. You sold the shares recently for $2,000. While you owned the stock it paid $10.08 per share annual dividends. What was your rate of return on Trublock stock?4) Having heard of your acquaintance of present value techniques, you pretend been asked to testify as an expert witness in the following lawsuit.Several homeowners in a nearby community have organized to protest against alleged gouging on the part of a local lending institution. One resident presents his payment book as evidence.The resident has a 30-year, fixed rate loan at 6 percent interest for $200,000. He got the loan 10 years ago and has been making equal annual payments of $14,529.60 ever since. He observes that he has paid the lending company $145,296.00 yet his payment book indicates that the principal due on the loan has only declined by $33,345.40. He presents this as obvious proof of gouging on the part of the money changers. Do you agree? Why, why not?5) In 1984, the city council of the town of Patterson agree that their community badly in need of a modern hotel that would cost approximately $25 million. To finance construction members of the council organized the Patterson Hotel Corporation. Through strenuous progress they raised $15 million by selling 15,000 shares of stock at $1,000 per share. They secured the other $10 million necessary to build the hotel as a loan provided by a local bank on a 10 year, 14 percent mortgage that called for uniform annual payments sufficient to pay interest and to extinguish the debt at the end of 10 years.Upon completion, the Patterson Hotel Corporation leased the hotel to a national company that operated a chain of hotels. The lease ran for 30 years and contained a clause permitting the lessee to purchase the hotel for $10 million at the end of the 30-year period. The lessee agreed to furnish the hotel and pay all taxes (including income taxes) and operating expenses, and was to meet the interest and repayment obligati ons on the mortgage during the first 10 years of the lease. During the last 20 years of the lease, the operating company agreed to make payments sufficient to permit annual dividends of $ cd per share. No payments at all were to be made to the stockholders during the first 10 years. This was the most favorable operating contract that Patterson Hotel Company was able to negotiate.When stockholders, many of whom had bought stock under considerable pressure, learned that there was no prospect of dividends for 10 years, they were quite upset, and a number of them were anxious to sell their stock. Conrad Billings, a local businessmen in the original group that promoted the hotel, was reported to be buying stock from some of these disgruntled stockholders at $750 a share.Some locals were heard to comment that Conrad Billings was a clever old bastard who was taking advantage of his public-spirited neighbors. There were remarks regarding the fat dividends he would be receiving after the mo rtgage was paid off. One man was said to have declined Billings offer of $750 a share and to have commented publicly that nobody was going to get his stock unless they paid what it was worth.Make whatever assumptions and calculations you find necessary to estimate the fair value of the stock. Was $750 a share really too low a price?6) You need four new tires for your car. You net buy cheap retread tires for $25 a piece and replace them every(prenominal) 20,000 miles or you can spend $40 per tire and replace them every 40,000 miles. If money has an opportunity cost of 10 percent to you, how many miles must you drive annually to warrant the more expensive tires?

Analysing The Wealth Of Money And Knowledge

Analysing The Wealth Of specie And KnowledgeIn the modern society, there atomic number 18 certain major of groups believe that having money oer go on the concept of having more knowledge. Conversely, there are a number of people believe that with go forth a corking pedagogy, we energy not make it in the debased growing society. On certain levels, having a certain marrow of money or knowledge does bring home the bacon benefits to individuals that possess it. We might be adapted to attend in our life by being wealthy in money or knowledge. Having bulky money, we are capable to make lots of investment in our company to provide a coarse capital. In addition, when starting a business, one must possess certain knowledge of the industrys business to enhance the growth. wealthy in money discharge also provide a roaring life if one knows how to think the value of money. We are able to make payments for owe or cars while not forgo certain expenses in order to have their port of life. With money, we clear provide a good education to our kids and provide them good balance of nutrients. On the former(a) hand, knowledge also abide optimize a human being lifestyle. We are able to get to machines that digest ease our work and strength.We do assume that the power of money enable us to facilitate friends financial site. Being a true friend, we are able to do small favors to ease their worry. When theyre in need of guidance, having appropriate knowledge release us to listen and think rationally for the crush solution and get out them in decision making.People much go through with(predicate) various situations that require their decision that reflects their potentials. With great knowledge, we can independently carry ourselves to the outside sphere and being confident about our judgment and stand on our own feet. Having money bears the privilege of being financially independent. In future event of contingency in business of job, we are still able to g o through the difficult process without making ad exclusivelyment.BodyAngle 1 Stepping stone to advantageEducation is the pathway to enrich knowledge and succeed in life. The extra education a person could obtain on a certain subjects allow them to construct a kick downstairs inform decisions that would result in increased income or better equipment. The value of good education is the basic key in getting a good solid job that able to support us to have a decent lifestyle. With education, we are able to go through different task in a job and with the qualified papers we are able to climb our careers upwards. The passion of wanting more in education gives us a broader mind and view towards the world and different concepts on how the world ticks. In a way having a good education reflects on a person. As they value your knowledge and education, you are not afraid to voice out your opinion and create doubts in one self.A huge capital in a business ensures that the business is able to take losses and risk for a period of epoch. This is very crucial especially in starting a business as the companys profile is fresh and needed time to venture their product into the market. In starting a business, the right amount of capital is essential because of the companys instability and with a huge capital, owners are able to gamble their business into a bigger perspective without drawback in funding. A huge capital gives an advantage to business since money is needed to pay for machines, labors and goods produced. With the proper funding, the company are able to plan their growth and make additional adjustments to expose the business. A huge capital enables company to maximize their market using various of ways such as advertisement, samples and road shows.Knowledge also contributes to the succeeder in life. It is vital for anyone that ones to succeed in their career or business to learn different skills. Whether is it communication, planning, productivity and creativity. One must be able to succeed the technique to communicate and persuade customers to buy their product. They must also able to plan their schedule and make preparations for the future event and predict the best outline to boost their productivity. In the fast growing world of business, its is comparably hard to excel a business as the competition is big and there are various levels of competitors in the industry. To even begin with something, first we must have a decent foundation of information in the particular field. This comes by continual exposure and experience which makes them mature in decision making. If ones foundation is not strong, they volition have difficulties in dealing with intense riddles and they might miss out in lots of opportunities.With our enhanced knowledge and education, we are able to go build our mid set in dealing with various of difficultys. In many an(prenominal) stages of life, we might be struggling with many obstacles and difficulties in our w ork life. Sometimes were unable to tackle the problem due to the complexity of the problem. In every problem there always have to be a solution to it. Before we rush to solve a problem, its always best to look at the problem from a different point of view whether from ourselves or an otherwise person. By doing so, we are able to identify the root problem and widen the choices of solution. Furthermore, we are able to widen our mind by resulting to think outside the box and able to achieve the best results. Sometimes no matter how hard we try, it seems impossible to let ways to solve the problems. By having an appropriate knowledge, we might able to divide the problems into smaller proportions and slowly work out the pieces. By the power of wisdom we possess, it could be real handy when we can point out the easy part to solve if its in our expertise and then we emerge from the root itself. The answer might not come instantly but as we thought of the problem over and over again from a different point of view, we might just able to find the right explanation.Angle 2 ComfortMany people say, money is not everything, money does not bring happiness in our life, etc, but money does bring comfort in life. In my opinion, money can buy quality goods such as healthy food, a better and more comfortable shelter or branded clothes to make our life become more comfortable. Quality goods usually cost more than other normal goods. Money can fulfill ones desires. With money, we do not need to worry about our daily life or any financial problem. For example, we can buy leisure things such as a big house or car so that we and our family can live in a comfortable environment. Therefore, money makes life become easier and money does bring comfort in life.With knowledge, its possible to invent new engineering science to make life comfortable. With knowledge, it is possible to create new products to make life more comfortable. New technology that can relieve us from disease and work can be created with knowledge. With these new technologies, we can live a healthier life and our works can be reduced. These can bring comfort in our life. Other than that, new beauty products can be created to enhance ones look with knowledge. Some technologies have made our life more comfortable. Air cooler is one of the examples. Air cooler is useful to us in a hot day. It makes us to be more comfortable. Thus, knowledge brings comfort in life and makes life more pleasurable.Angle 3 FrienshipMoney can create friendship by giving a helping hand when your friend is in a tight budget situation, additionally they appreciate the face value of helping hand and the sacrifices you made, we can easily strengthen friendship. In accomplish a goal, one must provide compromises. We understand that theyre in a financial crisis and we learn to communicate with them and there are various methods to assist them in the recovery process. It would make a lot of difference with some(prenominal) kind s of small favours such as treating him to dinner for an occasion, car pooling together or even inviting him to a pot luck dinner to lighten up his burden.A true friend plays a very important role in life. They are there during the happiest time and also hardest time when ones facing a gummed situation. As they are able to listen to your problems, show their attention and able to share their knowledge and experience they had to assist you in decision making. Most of the time in our lives, we bound to step into trouble. Thats where friends comes in and guide us to the right path again. We might not go through many kinds of situations or predicament but hearing other stories and past gives us the knowledge to prepare for the future outcome and learn from others mistake. By share other information, not merely we get closure with friends, indirectly we are equipping ourselves with worthful information that we dont get from kind or home. In example, if we got a studies problem in cl ass the first thing in mind is to ask a friend. He or she might know but they are willing to try their best to give you the best solution and solve your doubts.Angle 4 IndependencePeople that are having good incomes are able to be financially license as they are secure in living the lifestyle they desired without fear of over expenses. They will encounter fewer problems such as having peculiar(a) budget or to cut down expenses in order to maintain their current lifestyle. With enough money, people can solve some of their problem and they will not be stressful in solving the problems. People can also send their children to a good school or college without applying study give from government. Thus, money does bring independence.Having a good amount of knowledge is able to guide us to be independent in life and to carry ourselves without depending on others. People can solve certain problems by themselves easily if they have an excellent amount of knowledge. Besides that, with knowl edge, we can boost our self confidence in dealing with various people without having the fear of people doubting our capability in performing a task or job. In addition, knowledge helps us to know what is right and wrong to do and what we should or should not do in life and to be able to stand on solid grounds. closureCertain criteria in having abundance of money or knowledge do equip an individual in starting off their pathway. Numerous individuals consider that having either one and exclude the other is enough but it is a need to balance out the two important factors. Without a solid education, we might not even able to solve even the simplest task as our depth of knowledge is shallow that we cant show our highest potential. In tackling different business strategy, employees often work in teams and brainstorm with each other to share knowledge of the particular task. We must possess the equivalent set of skills and information to act. The money we gather up can be put to invest in own business or others and by proper analyzing and research, we can decide whether the money is put to good use to increase our capital and productivity which can turns into profits. Having money gives us an opportunity to broaden up the business while able to venture into other industry.Money has always been a goal for people that want to live an easy and happy life. Individuals are trying various of methods to enhance their skills and careers to make them valuable to the company as to achieve the desired job that can ensure that they are financially independent thus having no worries in indulging themselves to wonder life. By having valuable expertise, individuals are not afraid to express their view and this helps in boosting inner confidence and self esteem. They are deeply motivated to occupy their aim in setting a reputation for themselves. In addition, if we have powerful knowledge, we might able to change the world by discovering new innovations and technology which can help others. In daily situations where we arent able to go through certain problems, friends are always there to guide us by sharing their knowledge whether in studies or personal relationship or life itself. By exchanging knowledge we are advancing ourselves in tackling a similar situation in the future. We might also able to lend a hand whether is moral support or money support in a way we can relieve his crisis finance.Money and knowledge both plays a vital role in many people life thus it is essential to cash in ones chips a balance form between them. By doing so, we are aware of the things going around us and we are able to take control over it.Ordinary riches can be stolen, real riches cannot. In your soul are infinitely precious things that cannot be taken from you.

Mills Sociological Imagination On Individual Problems

mill Sociological Imagination On Individual ProblemsMills (1959) talks of a sociological imagination when looking at the problems of the individual. How might this sociological imagination assist affectionate actors? How might sociological theories offer recyclable insights into the societally constructed nature of many of the contemporary brotherly problems encountered by accessible acidifyers? Do this by reference to a contemporary social problem that social workers may concur to work with.This paper will explore Mills supposition of a sociological imagination when looking at the problems of the individual, and explain how this theory might assist social workers. The concentrate on will then turn to leanness as a contemporary social problem encountered by social workers. Poverty will be explored and discussed by reference to how sociological theories (Marxism, Functionalism and Feminism) offer useful insights into the socially constructed nature of impoverishment.C. Wrig ht Mills (1916 62) was, according to Cunningham (2008, p7) a flamboyant Ameri ordure sociologist. Slattery (1991, p210) claims his aim was to reform connection as much as explain it, to disseminate sociology and set up a sociological imagination amongst the American public. Matthewman (2007, p91) explains that a sociological imagination requires a special quality of mind. When we process it we argon able to catch links between biography and history, to lift up how the personal relates to the public, and the individual to the structural. Matthewman is supported by Leon-Guerrero (2005, p14). By continuing to develop a sociological imagination and recognising the large social, cultural and structural forces, we can identify appropriate measures to cover social problems. Cunningham (2008) explores this using an example of a person suffering from depression after(prenominal) losing their job. With start recognising factors right(prenominal) of the personal (such as the current economic or political conditions), the problem can non not be amplely understood, addressed or resolved. Consequently failure to develop a sociological imagination could result in judgements or assumptions being made upon the failure of the individual, quite an than societal structures. Stepping back to see the bigger throw can avoid granted assumptions, labels or whizs personal values coming into play. Finally, Cunningham (2008, pg7) argues that learning to think sociologically is one of the to the highest degree important skills a social worker can bring to their practice.Poverty is a long standing social problem and one which is prevalent among service exploiters. This is supported by Smale et al. (2000, p18) who claims those who use, and argon required to use, social work services pass off overwhelmingly to be brusque and disadvantaged. Despite this, social workers fuddle been criticised about their k todayledge of the effects and origins of meagerness and lack of aw a rness regarding societal structures in relation to scantiness. Becker (1997) cited in Cunningham (2008, p47) claims social workers have little understanding of the complex processes that generate and maintain poverty they have limited insight into how their political and welf be ideologies and attitudes to poverty affect their daily practice with poor populate they have failed to place poverty on the schedule for social work theorising, education, policy and practice. Krumer-Nevo et al. (2009, p225) writing for the Journal of Social head for the hills Education agrees and argues that despite the profound commitment of social work towards people animate in poverty, the social work profession has failed to develop practice based on aw beness of poverty.To measure poverty, it first it has to be defined. There is no oecumenic agreement regarding how to define poverty, although Cunningham (2008) and Leon-Guerrero (2005) describe two main methods use, Absolute and Relative poverty. Absolute poverty constitutes a lack of basic necessities such as, food, shelter and clothing. It refers to a lack of physical needs and is more like to be found in third world countries. Relative poverty was developed by shaft Townsend. It focuses on the inequalities in confederacy. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p224) body politics that it is based on the premise that some people fail to happen upon the average income and lifestyle enjoyed by the rest of society. Relative poverty is a widely accepted definition in developed countries and is used by the government in the UK. The Poverty Site (2009) confirms that the (UK) governments target of halving child poverty by 2010 is defined in terms of relative poverty. Moulder (2000, p2) confirms that sociologists came to define social problems as problems that concern large make senses of people, have social-structural causes, and require social-structural solutions. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p3) explains first, a problem is a social condition that has detrimental consequences. If there were only positive consequences, there would be no problem. Poverty has many negative consequences in person and structurally. Poverty is more than a lack of money. According to a report by the Department of Work and Pensions (2009, p2) research about the impact that poverty can have on peoples lives shows that the generate of poverty is almost always overwhelmingly negative, and can have psychological, physical, relational and practical effects on peoples lives. more thanover, poverty is a highly stigmatised social position and the experience of poverty in an affluent society can be particular(prenominal)ly isolating and socially damaging. Beresford et al. (1999) concurs with the Department of Work and Pensions findings. Additionally, the media often report on links between poverty and health, educational attainment, teenage pregnancies, anti-social behaviour, mental health and social exclusion. All of which have a negative impact and con sequence upon society.Leon-Guerrero (2005, p3) informs that a social problem has objective and subjective realities. A social condition does not have to be personally experience by e really individual in order to be considered a social problem. The objective reality of a social problem comes from acknowledging that a social condition does exist. It must be recognised at an agency (individual) level as having negative consequences for those who experience it. Poverty is app arnt at an agency level in society local clothing banks, annual Children In Need appeal deprived argonas we may have seen or live near, Big edit out sellers, seeing the homeless or beggars on the street, and in the media (reality documentaries such as The Secret Millionaire). Leon-Guerrero (2005, p6) addresses the subjective reality. The subjective reality of a social problem addresses how a problem becomes defined as a problem. It is defined by powerful groups in society (politicians, religious leaders, pressur e groups, the media or even grassroots). As state earlier, the UK government has defined poverty as a social problem. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p6) states, they become real only when they are subjectively defined or perceived as problematic. Recognising the subjective aspects of social problems allows us to understand how a social condition may be defined as a problem by one segment of society, but be completely ignored by another. Cunningham (2008, p33) explains that in the 1980s and 1990s Conservative ministers used absolute definitions to refute claims that Britain had a evidential poverty problem and that their policies had led to increased levels of poverty. The problem was defined away. This paper will now explore functionalism, Marxism, radical and liberal feminism.Functionalism was developed by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and gain developed by Talcott Parsons. Functionalism views society on a macro scale. Slattery (1991, p63) uses a biological metaphor to explain Functionalism. It functions like any other natural being as a outline of independent parts the economy, the family, the government and so on held together by not a central nervous system but a central value system, a set of sociological guidelines called norms based on underlying moral consensus, or collective consciousness. Matthewman (2007) asserts functionalists view society as a complex system, involving a vast array of political, economic and social character references, all of which play an essential part in ensuring society functions and continues to develop. Consensus is at the heart of this theory. It assumes individuals are socialised to fit in, taught the norms of society, primarily by the family unit, secondly by educational institutions, peers, the workplace, and wider society. Leon-Guerrero (2005) claims social problems are not considered in terms of how skanky they are, but how the problem arises from society, and whether it serves a function. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p228) argue s that poverty is seen as a natural consequence of system stratification. This refers to rapid changes that took place in society economically and technologically. It created a workforce that was unskilled for the new economy. Functionalists believe inequalities indoors the workforce are inevitable. Social status, wealth and power is earned, rewarded and deserved, by dint of skill and hard work. Davis and Moore (1945) cited in outmatch (2005, p29) support this, stating social inequality is thus an unconsciously evolved device by which by which societies ensure that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified persons.A well-known writer from the political right perspective H. J. Gans (1971, p1-5) explores how poverty may exist to serve positive functions for society. Some of these accept the poor perform work others do not wish to do they provide employment for the professionals that service them activities such as drugs, pawn shops and prostitut ion continue to prosper they serve as scapegoats (the honest and hard working can accuse them of being dishonest, lazy and scroungers) also poverty acts as a bar tool in terms of status for the non-poor. However, Gans suggests that many of the functions served by the poor could be replaced if poverty were eliminated, but almost always at a high cost to others, particularly more affluent others. He believes that a functional analysis must conclude that poverty persists not only because it fulfils a number of positive functions but also because many of the functional alternatives to poverty would be quite impaired for affluent members. Gans believes poverty will be eliminated only when it becomes dysfunctional for the affluent or powerful, or when the powerless can obtain enough power to change society. Interestingly, Gans states his aim with this paper was, to show functionalism is not an inherently buttoned-up approach, but that it can be employed into liberal and even radical a nalyses.The social construction of poverty from a functionalist perspective is seen as natural and practiced for the affluent and society, or at least parts of it. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p228) supports this assertion. Functionalists observe that poverty is a product of our social structure. Functionalists do not inherently agree with poverty, they do it it has functions as well dysfunctions but recognise that it has a role to play in the structure of society. They strongly believe power and wealth is earned through skill and hard work, not everyone has the talent to succeed, therefore, inequality and poverty is inevitable. The poor are seen as flawed, marked out from the rest of society, deviant and non-conforming. The current deferral in the UK which has forced many more into poverty would, from a functionalist perspective, be viewed as a natural temporary occurrence. The role of a functionalist social worker would be to support individuals to get back into their role ensuring the smooth running of society.Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-93) was one of the key influences in sociology according to Slattery (1991). Marxism is a conflict theory, which like functionalism, views society on a macro scale. However, they argue that poverty is the consequence of a capitalist society it is constructed due to an unequal distribution of power and wealth. The main sop up of the Marxist argument is that conflict exists between the linees the bourgeoisie (who own the capital) and the proletariat (who provide the labour). Giddens (2006, p16) explains capital is any asset, including money, machines or even factories, which can be used or garmented to make future assets. Giddens (2006, p16) asserts the bourgeoisie own their means of a livelihood, whereas the proletariat are wage-labour. The proletariat must seek employment from the bourgeoisie, who form a ruling class over the mass proletariat population. Payne (2005, p228) claims capitalism is an economic system in which a few p eople accumulate capital to invest in producing goods and others sell labour to them for wages. The profit earned by the bourgeoisie is seen as exploitation of the proletariat. Moreover, the bourgeoisie create a false consciousness ir liable the media, policies, laws, religion and education, influencing and shaping the proletariats norms and values, idealising how society thinks. This false consciousness leads the proletariat to believe economic inequality is fair and just. This is supported by Best (2005) and Taylor et al. (2002). The most crucial point is the relationship between the two classes. Giddens (2006) explains that although each class is dependant on the other this dependency is not balanced. Giddens (2006, p16) explains the relationship between classes is an exploitative one, since workers have little or no control over their labour and employers are able to generate profit by appropriating the product of workers labour.Hilary Searing (2007) writes from a radical soci al work perspective. In an article Poverty in the Big Issue written for the Barefoot Social Worker website, Searing claims poverty is structurally constructed and the consequence of a modern capitalist society. Poverty and inequality seem to be an intrinsic part of modern capitalism. She criticises the government suggesting that poverty has been ignored in order to achieve economic prosperity. This Labour government, by continuing the neoliberal, modernising agenda of the previous government, regards poverty and inequality as the inevitable price to be paid to maintain scrap in the global economy. Like Marxists, Searing believes social class is a major factor. The social class a child is born into is a major determiner of their life chances. Searing believes social workers patch the cracks regarding poverty, rather than tackling the real structural cause. The government assumes that social workers can deal with poverty without tackling the underlying causes. Searing believes Labou r demean social-structural causes, accordingly placing the onus of poverty upon the individual. She states the government chooses to minimise the part played by social and economic factors, outside the control of the individual, in causing poverty and implies that in most cases personal inadequacy is at the root of peoples failure to remain independent and self-supporting.In summary, Marxists believe poverty is constructed by social structures society fails the poor and the abolition of capitalism in favour of communism is the solution. According to Giddens (2006) Marxists believe revolution among the proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie is inevitable, and that it will bring about a new classless society. Giddens (2006, p17) explains Marxists do not consider inequality would be eliminated. Rather, that society would no longer be split into a small class that monopolises economic and political power and the large mass of people who benefit little from the wealth their work creat es. Marxists would argue that the current recession was caused by greed and unethical lay on the line taking amongst the bourgeoisie, and the proletariats will be left to bear the real costs. Cunningham (2008) argues that Marxists see social workers as agents of social control on behalf of the state, acting in the interests of the bourgeoisie. Their motive for availing people is to get them back into the work force. They believe that much of social work is around control, surveillance and assigning hip-hop upon individuals. Payne (2005, p231) echoes Cunningham suggesting social workers are seen agents of class control enhancing the heaviness by capitalist societies of the working class. They simply enable the capitalist system to reproduce itself in the adjoining generation by supportering people to cope with the difficulties of the system.Poverty is of particular relevance to feminist theories since Taylor (2002, p179) claims women are more likely to experience poverty than men. In an article for the BBC News website (2008) entitled Womens Low Pay Behind Poverty, womens pay was seen to be a major cause. The TUC said that mothers were being trapped in part-time, low-paid jobs. More than 75% of part-time workers were female. The sexual urge pay gap for full-time workers was 17.2%. In the same article, TUC general secretary Brendan Barber asserts as 40% of households are now headed by single mothers, this has concerning implications for tackling child poverty. Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p145) claim household incomes are not distributed equally. Women tend to have smaller independent incomes than men and there is no sanction that they will share fully the income of their husbands or partners. Additionally, women are less likely to have occupational pensions and income from investments wed women are less likely to work than married men more women than men rely on benefits as their main source of income lone parents are vulnerable to poverty, and a la rge majority are women. The majority of pensioners are also women. Glendinning and Miller cited in Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p145) claim women are more likely to live in poverty than men because they are viewed as secondary workers, their primary role is seen as domestic and they are less important than that of their husbands so they are not expected to earn a family wage. Moreover, women are disadvantaged in access to social security benefits. Only 60 per cent of women are entitled to maternity leave and many women care for eliminate and elderly relatives, yet they receive very small state allowances for doing so. This intermittent and often part-time employment of women leaves many illegible for unemployment benefit and redundancy pay. Moreover, within the household men command more of the family resources (of money, of food, of space and so on) and this is legitimised by their status as breadwinners. Hill writing for The Observer (2009) suggests women suffer financially afte r divorce, duration men become richer. She argues his available income increases by around one third. Women, in contrast, suffer severe financial penalties. Regardless of whether she has children, the average womans income falls by more than a fifth and remains low for many years.There are varying perspectives of feminism, the main three being liberal, radical and Marxist. According to Trevithick (2005) while there are differing perspectives they generally agree on certain principles. The main aim is gender equality however, they differ on the cause and solution to this problem. Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p592) state most radical feminists broadly share the same aim as Marxists and liberal feminists they seek equality between the sexes rather than dominance.Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p592) state radical feminists see society as patriarchal it is dominated and ruled by men. According to Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p602) Kate Millet was one of the first radical feminists to use the term. Giddens (2006, p471) argues from this perspective men are responsible for and benefit from the exploitation of women and that patriarchy is viewed as a universal phenomenon that has existed across time and cultures. Leon-Guerrero (2005, p230) claims feminist scholars argue the welfare state is an arena of political struggle. The ride to maintain male dominance and the patriarchal family is assumed to be the principal force of shaping the formation, implementation, and outcomes of the U.S. welfare policy. In the UK, the preservation of marriage and the nuclear family is on the political agenda. Gentlemen (2009) writing for The Guardian claims the Conservatives say marriage is key to addressing social breakdown. They also propose rewarding married couples. Bingham (2009) in the Daily Telegraph alleges the Tories are proposing tax breaks for married couples which would allow women who stay at home to pass on their allowance to their husband. Abramovitz (1996) cited in L eon-Guerrero (2005, p230) claims that welfare has historically served to distinguish between the merit poor (widows with children) and the undeserving poor (single and divorced mothers). For instance, Margaret Thatcher condemned single mothers in the 1980s. According to the Workers Liberty website (2007) she once infamously proposed cutting all benefits to single mothers, stating that they should live in repurchase Army hostels or give up their children for adoption if their own families wouldnt support them.Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p592) allege the family is often seen by radical feminists as the key institution producing womens oppression in modern societies. Giddens (2006, p471) supports this stating radical feminists often concentrate on the family as one of the primary sources of womens oppression in society. They argue that men exploit women by relying on the free domestic labour that women provide in the home. As a group, men also deny women access to positions of power and influence in society.Firestone (1970), a radical feminist cited in Cunningham (2008, p96) claims womens inferiority is linked to their biological sex. Haralambos and Holborn (1995, p471) explore this further suggesting men control womens role in reproduction and child-rearing. Because women are biologically able to give birth to children, they become dependant materially on men for protection and livelihood. Most importantly this biological inequality is socially organised within the nuclear family. Giddens (2006) argues that not all radical feminists agree with Firestone, but rather believe that it originates from culture and socialisation. Haralambos and Holborn (1995, 592) argue that radical feminists believe that gender equality can only be attained by overthrowing the patriarchal order. Giddens (2006, p592) asserts that many radical feminists reject the assistance of males in reaching their aim, because men are seen as the enemies of womens liberation.In contrast, Liberal feminists according to Cunningham (2008) agree that equality should be more equal between men and women. However, unlike radical feminists they do not believe that patriarchy is the cause of womens oppression. Giddens (2006, p468) claims that liberal feminists look for explanations of gender inequalities in social and cultural attitudes. Cunningham (2008, p97) agrees with Giddens but probes deeper stating the roots of womens oppression lie with the irrational prejudice, stereotyping and overage attitudes and practices that lead to sex discrimination occurring in all spheres of life.Like radical feminists they believe the family is oppressive to women. Women are expected to play the social role of wife and mother along with carrying sole responsibility for the household chores that go with it. Cunningham (2008, p97) believes it is an ideology that is perpetuated by the media and popular culture. A womens role is laid out before her, she is not free to find their own fulfilment. Lif e opportunities are not equal to that of mens. Dunne, Kurki and Smith (2009) assert that economic insecurity is believed to exist due to gender inequality. Women are disproportionately located at the bottom of the socioeconomic scale in all societies. Womens disproportionate poverty cannot be explained by market conditions alone gendered role expectations about the economic worth of womens work and the kinds of tasks that women are expected to do contribute to their economic insecurity.In terms of addressing equality Giddens (2006, p470) claims liberal feminists tend to focus their energies on establishing and protecting equal opportunities for women through legislation and other democratic means. Haralambos and Holborn (1995) explain how liberal feminists supported the Sex Discrimination and Equal Pay Act, hoping these would help to end discrimination. They believe gradual change can be brought about within the existing social structure. Cunningham (2008, p98) states they would als o support further female histrionics and involvement in politics by the introduction of women-only shortlists. Liberal feminists are modest in how they aim to bring about change, through anti-discriminatory legislation rather than overthrowing the system like radical feminists. Finally, Cunningham (2008, p99) points out that liberal feminists believe nobody benefits from gender discrimination. Women lose out on the ability to develop their talents, business loses out because it fails to harness the potential and ability of 50% of the population, and men lose out because they are denied the opportunity to develop close ties with their children.This paper has sought to explore how Mills theory of a sociological imagination may assist social workers when considering the problem of an individual, and how three grand sociological theories can offer useful insights into the socially constructed nature of poverty. To conclude, this paper shall consider the use of those theories upon socia l work practice.Cree (2000, p7) asserts sociology offers social work the opportunity to explore meanings beneath taken-for-granted assumptions about behaviour, action and social structure. It offers a knowledge and value base which is not rooted in individual pathology but instead seeks to understand individuals in the context of the broader structures that make up their lives (including social class, gender, age, race, and ethnicity) and the historical movement within which they are living. Sociology provides competing theories that offer differing perspectives to explain the emergence, domain and persistence of poverty. Moreover, they can raise awareness of oppression and disadvantage that may be constructed in social structures. Cree (2000, p208) confirms that inequality and oppression exist at both individual and structural levels.Dominelli (2002) argues that practitioners who follow emancipatory approaches seek to achieve anti-oppressive practice by cerebrate on the specifics of a situation in a holistic manner and mediating between its personal and structural components. To obtain this impact, social workers and their clients develop clear goals to betroth and use networking and negotiation techniques to secure change. Change usually occurs at the micro-level where interpersonal relationships are the target of the intervention(s). Such an approach could be, as suggested by Cunningham (2008, p48) task-centred. This approach offers a very practical model which is potentially very empowering. The service user decides which areas they should like to work on. Practice is based on the premise that the service user will work in partnership with the social worker and learn new methods that will equip them in the future. In this sense, workers could adopt a very practical way to address some aspects of poverty. However, Cunningham warns perhaps this still doesnt go far enough, as this method of practice is based upon an individual approach and doesnt address t he bigger picture. Possibly combining task-centred working with other more radical methods of working might address this. Dominelli (2002, p86) agrees with Thompson, and suggests if poverty is causing personal hardship, institutional (meso-level) and/or societal (macro-level) changes may be required alongside endeavours aimed at helping the individual to control its deleterious effect on his or her life. Feminist and base of operations methods of practice both focus on the bigger picture. According to Drakeford (2008, p310) radical social work, essentially Marxist in persuasion, suggested that alliances could be formed between clients in social welfare which would allow for vested interests to be challenged and authority to be redistributed from the powerful to the powerless. Trevithick (2005, p284) states that this approach emphasises the importance of social, economic and political solutions to social problems, thereby shifting the onus of blame from the individual without denyi ng responsibility. This involves social workers challenging the social structures that oppress and discriminate. Trevithick (2005, p285) claims that practitioners who work from a radical/progressive/activist perspective are stormily committed to the issue of social justice and to working alongside people from disadvantaged groups in order to initiate change. Feminist social work, according to Dominelli and MacLeod (1989, p1) is inform by a feminist analysis of social problems. Dominelli and MacLeod (1989, p.23) assert the feminist approach has focussed on identifying the specific ways in which women experience their existence drawing peoples attention to the lack of resources, power and emotional fulfilment which hold women down exposing the social relations and social forces responsible for creating their state of affairs and placing the dilemma of women firmly on the agenda for social change. Dominelli (2008, p113) suggests feminist social work practice is also relevant to child ren and men. This is echoed by Cree (2000). A limitation, according to Trevithick (2005, p282) is that most women experience additional oppressions, such as discrimination in relation to class, race, age, disabilities, sexual orientation, culture and religious beliefs. And that these additional oppressions are not always given sufficient weight.Cree (2000, p209) informs that sociology may not be able to provide social work practitioners with answers, but the questions themselves lead to the potential development of sensitive, anti-oppressive practice. This is because all theories, ideas and practices are based on a particular set of political and moral principles. We therefore have to make choices about what theories we believe are most useful, and what actions we think are most helpful (or perhaps least damaging) for those with whom we are working. Social work is fundamentally about values and about value-judgements. Sociological knowledge can provide us with a framework for anti-d iscriminatory, anti-oppressive practice, by giving us the analytical tools with which to begin to explore the relationship between individuals and society. Mills (1959, p8) personal troubles and public issues. Cree (2000, p5) argues sociology and social work construct the individual. It is also for this reason that social workers need a sociological imagination. Additionally, social works central purpose is to work on behalf of society to help those individuals and groups who are vulnerable and marginalised. If a service users problem exists due to structural of inequalities in society, and a social worker fails to make such a connection, they risk blaming the individual/group, perpetuating the oppression and discrimination already felt by social structures. Consequently, social workers need to have an awareness of the discrimination and oppression some people or groups face in society and be guarded not to perpetuate assumptions, labels or blame. Thompson (2005, p137) claims oppres sive practice can happen through navet or ignorance failing to recognise significant issues of inequality and thus exacerbating them by not addressing them. And by reinforcing stereotypes jumping to conclusions about a particular individual without actually assessing their circumstances. Therefore, by developing and using our sociological imagination and by being aware and open to theoretical perspectives and approaches to practice, we can take inevitable steps to guard against anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory practice.

The Practice And History Of Alchemy Chemistry Essay

The Practice And History Of chemistry Chemistry EssayAlchemy, derived from the Arabic term al-kimia (, ALA-LC al-kmiy), is both a philosophy and an ancient practice foc theatrical roled on the attempt to change base metals into bullion, investigating the preparation of the elixir of longevity, and achieving ultimate wisdom, involving the usefulness of the alchemist as well as the making of s constantlyal substances described as possessing unusual properties. The practical aspect of interpersonal chemistry can be viewed as a protoscience, having generated the basics of modern inorganic chemistry, namely concerning procedures, equipment and the identification and use of legion(predicate) current substances.Alchemy has been practiced in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), India, Persia (modern Iran), China, Japan, Korea, the classical Greco-Roman b every last(predicate), the gallant Islamic world, and then me fallval Europe up to the 20th century and 21st Century, in a comp lex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at to the lowest degree 2,500 years.HISTORYWhat existed before modern Chemistry?After the death of Alexander the Great of Macedon (323 B.C.), much of the conquered territories in the Persian Empire that were located in the philia East and northern Africa, began to dissolve. Ptolemy, one of Alexanders generals, established a kingdom on the coast-line of Egypt.As its capital, Alexandria was considered to be one of the most culturally diverse cities in the world at that time Ptolemy and Ptolemy II founded the Temple to The Muses, differently known as The Museum, to continue scholarly activities and studies of the twenty-four hours.The Museum could be considered an equivalent to a university or a research institution by todays measuring sticks.At the Temple of The Muses, Grecian philosophy, considered to be the basis for western-scientific ideas and reasoning, fused with local Egyptian khemeia, the ancient subterfuge, reli gion, and ceremonies of embalming the dead to create Greek-Egyptian khemia. Because the art of khemeia had been shrouded in mysticism, religion, and the secretive language of obscure symbols, common people were afraid of the practitioners and their seemingly dangerous yet powerful knowledge of chemicals.There were two major(ip) unfortunate byproducts of Greek-Egyptian khemeia that were a result of these cryptic practices and obscure languages and symbols. First, the secretive nature of this field slowed its progression so that no one could profit from anothers mis slays or regulate from anothers brilliance. Secondly, anyone who spoke in the obscure languages and symbols of Greek- Egyptian khemeia couldnt be understood, so just about anyone who could make up nonsensical members could pass as a scholar.As time passed, Greek-Egyptian khemeia began to fall further into obscurity, where shadowy practices of wizardry, magic, and sorcery seemed to flourish in mysticism. Of these, a Greek - Egyptian by the name of Bolos of Mendes (c. 200 B.C.) promised a irradiation which would allow for counselings of turning common metals, such as lead and iron, into luxurious and silver. Although it was not completely understood how this would be done, this tool, referred to as The Philosophers quarry, was the dream of many. Although The Philosophers Stone has never been found, the actual search for it has assisted in the study of metallurgy and regularityologies of modern day chemistry by refining many of the practical research laboratory techniques, skills, and blurware that are still used today, such as those used in distillation, filtration, crystallization, coagulation, evaporation, and extraction.In 4th century A.D., because Roman Emperor Diocletian feared that a cheap line of silver and gold could bankrupt the already shaky Roman economy and Pope Zosimuss recognition that Greek-Egyptian khemeia was a practice of pleasure seeker learning, little was done to block o ff the destruction of the Alexandrian Museum and its libraries by Christian riots. As a result, the study of Greek-Egyptian khemeia went underground and would remain as a hidden practice until the 7th century, where it emerged in the middle-east.In the early 7th century, Arabic tribes unified and began to conquer much of the middle-east, western Asia, and northern Africa. These conquering armies soon began to march on Eastern Europe, where the inhabitants of Constantinople, with the patron of a khemeia practicing Greek-Egyptian named Callinicus, used Greek fire as a form of defense against the intruders (670 A.D.). Greek Fire, a flammable mixture of sulphur, namptha, and quicklime, was placed into a bronzy tube, mounted on a castle wall or the bow of a ship, and was lit by a torch to spout fire at anyone who approached. Although this method was able to stave off some of the attacks by land and sea, the Arabic forces soon gained control of Constantinople, discovered the philosophy of Greek science, and began to utilize the practices of Greek-Egyptian khemeia for their benefit.In Arabic, Greek-Egyptian khemeia was translated into the term al-kimiya, flourishing not only as a science of metallurgy, however with the guidance ofJabir ibn-Hayann (c.760-815A.D.), its use in medicine as well.It was Al-Razi (c.850- 925A.D.), however, who perfected the use of plaster of Paris in mending broken bone, His meticulous ability to logically organize his notes and compositions showed the importance of clarity with laboratory procedures to the point where he became the first to document and describe the comparisons between smallpox and chickenpox.Many of his works were translated into Latin nearly 600 years later and made an control-to doe with on lab methodologies of performing medicine and other try outal research that are still used today.With all of the practical aspects that al-kimiya had to offer, it always had a way of returning to the cryptic and what we may ref er to today as non-scientific practices. Not only was there a search for The Philosophers Stone, but with a broadened focus on medicines within al-kimiya, purpose a single cure for all sicknesses, The Elixir or Life, and discovering a potion for maintaining youth, The Fountain of Youth, became some of the new mystical treasures. With these new promises of magical discovery, al-kimiya remained in a shroud of mystery and the study of chemicals was still considered a dark craft.As western European Crusaders clashed with Arabic Armies in the southern and eastern Europe, an intermingling of ideas and different cultures gave way to growth and appreciation of Arabic arts, science, and mathematics in the west. By the time the last Moorish strongholds in westbound Europe were pushed from Spain and Portugal in the 15th century, it became ever so clear that the Latin translations of Arabic sciences and mathematics would forever change the west, thus bringing a close to The Medieval Ages and an opening to the Scientific Renaissance. cognise as chemical science, by the Latin translation from the Arabic term al-kimiya, its practice thrived in Europe after being gone for nearly 800 years. Although it was still considered pagan learning in some circles, it thrived in underground communities where the search for the three mystic treasures of The Philosophers Stone, the Elixir of Life, and the Fountain of Youth continued.As Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541A.D.), better known as Paracelsus, studied the medical works of earlier alchemists, in particular Al-Razi, he believed that searching for cures by alchemical means could have a large impact on medicine, also. Until Paracelsus, only organic plant preparations were used for cures and remedies in treating diseases, but he believed that minerals synthesized in the lab were the key to the future of health care. Although he gained many followers, his attempts wouldnt be have sexd by traditional European medicine, since he was considered an alchemist. In fact, it would be well over a century after his death until others would recognize his efforts and put them into practice.One of Paracelsus followers and fellow practitioner of interpersonal chemistry, Andreas Libau (1540-1616A.D.), wanted to bring more clarity and rationality to this field. In 1597 he published ALCHEMIA, which summarized medieval achievements of interpersonal chemistry, writing with clarity and with minimal mysticism. When theories based upon mysticism were unavoidable, he would reluctantly include them and refer to them as Paracelsians. This book was revolutionary for the field of medicine, the emerging field of a more scientific-based chemistry, and for western science in general because it was one of the first known attempts in separating scientific facts of chemistry from mysticism.Like Al-Razi, Andreas Libau set a standard for alchemists by documentation of important laboratory methods and skills in the preparation of healthful chemicals within his publications, explaining how mineral salts and acids could be used as curing ailments. It wasnt until Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1668A.D.), however, that laboratory method and procedures would lead to the synthesis of Sodium Sulfate, Na2SO4 .10H2O(s), also known as Glaubers Salt. He found that it not only made a mild laxative for medicinal purposes, but when produced in mass quantities it could be commercialized to the general public to make a profit.EtymologyThe word alchemy derives from the Old French alquimie, which is from the Medieval Latin alchimia, and which is in turn from the Arabic al-kimia (). This term itself is derived from the Ancient Greek chemeia () with the addition of the Arabic definite article al- ().It used to be thought that the ancient Greek word was originally derived in its turn from Chemia (), a version of the Egyptian name for Egypt, which was itself based on the Ancient Egyptian word kme (hieroglyphic Khmi, lightlessness earth, as o pposed to desert sand). Some now think that the word originally derived from chumeia () moment mixture and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry. With the later rise of alchemy in Alexandria, the word may have been mistakenly thought by ancient writers to derive from , and thus became spelt as , and the original kernel forgotten. The question of the etymology of the word alchemy is still open, and recent research indicates that the Egyptian derivation of the word may be valid.Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual conditionAlchemy became known as the spagyric art after Greek words meaning to separate and to join together in the 16th century, the word believably being coined by Paracelsus. Compare this with one of the dictums of Alchemy in Latin Solve et Coagula Separate, and Join Together (or dissolve and coagulate).The best-known goals of the alchemists were the vicissitude of common metals into gold (called chrysopoeia) or silver (less well known is plant alchemy, or spagyr ic) the creation of a panacea, or the elixir of life, a remedy that, it was supposed, would cure all diseases and pull up life indefinitely and the discovery of a universal solvent. Although these were not the only uses for the discipline, they were the ones most documented and well-known. Certain Hermetic schools argue that the transmutation of lead into gold is analogical for the transmutation of the physical body (Saturn or lead) into (Gold) with the goal of attaining immortality. This is described as Internal Alchemy. Starting with the Middle Ages, Persian and European alchemists invested much effort in the search for the philosophers rock and roll, a legendary substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Pope John XXII issued a bull against alchemical counterfeiting, and the Cistercians banned the practice amongst their members. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of Alchemy. In the late 14th century, Piers the Plou ghman and Chaucer both varicoloured unflattering pictures of Alchemists as thieves and liars. By contrast, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, sponsored various alchemists in their work at his court in Prague.It is a popular belief that Alchemists made contributions to the chemical industries of the day-ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of gunpowder, ink, dyes, paints, cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics, glass manufacture, preparation of extracts, liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of aqua vitae, the water of life, was a fairly popular experiment among European alchemists). Alchemists contributed distillation to Western Europe. The double origin of Alchemy in Greek philosophy as well as in Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology set, from the start, a double approach the technological, operative one, which Marie-Louise von Franz call extravert, and the mystic, contemplative, psychological one, which von Franz names as introvert. T hese are not mutually exclusive, but complementary instead, as meditation requires practice in the real world, and conversely.Several early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis, are recorded as viewing alchemy as a spiritual discipline, and, in the Middle Ages, metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and molecular material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformations. In this sense, the typo meanings of Alchemical Formulas were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy, which being at odds with the Medieval Christian Church was a necessity that could have otherwise led them to the stake and rack of the Inquisition under charges of heresy. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state and the philosophers stone then represen ted a mystic key that would make this evolution realizable. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works and must be laboriously decoded in order to discover their true meaning.PsychologyAlchemical symbolism has been occasionally used by psychologists and philosophers. Carl Jung reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post-modern contexts.Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of individuation. In his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which Gnosticism survived its various purges into the Renaissance, a concept also followed by others such as Stephan A. Hoeller. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to Yoga of the East, as and more adequate to the Western mind than Eastern religions and philosophies. The practice of Alchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the Alchemist. Conversely, spontaneous changes on the mind of Western people undergoing any important stage in individuation seems to produce, on occasion, imagery known to Alchemy and relevant to the persons situation.His interpretation of Chinese alchemical texts in terms of his analytical psychology also served the function of comparing Eastern and Western alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources (archetypes).Marie-Louise von Franz, a disciple of Jung, continued Jungs studies on Alchemy and its psychological meaning.Alchemy as a subject of historical researchThe h istory of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure hermetic language of the alchemists is gradually being deciphered, historians are becoming more aware of the mind connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements, cryptography, witchcraft, and the evolution of science and philosophy.Modern connections to alchemyPersian alchemy was a forerunner of modern scientific chemistry. Alchemists used many of the same laboratory tools that are used today. These tools were not usually stalwart or in good condition, especially during the medieval period of Europe. Many transmutation attempts failed when alchemists unwittingly made unstable chemicals. This was made worse by the unsecured conditions in which the alchemists worked.Up to the 16th century, alchemy was considered serious science in Europe for i nstance, Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newtons occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous. Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are Roger Bacon, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Tycho Brahe, Thomas Browne, and Parmigianino. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new proud design of the universe based on rational materialism.Alchemy in traditional medicineTraditional medicines involve transmutation by alchemy, using pharmacologic or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Chinese medicine the alchemical traditions of pao zhi will transform the nature of the temperature, taste, body part accessed or toxicity. In Ayurveda the samskaras are used to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. T hese processes are actively used to the present day.Nuclear transmutationIn 1919, Ernest Rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert nitrogen into oxygen. From then on, this sort of scientific transmutation has been routinely performed in many nuclear physics-related laboratories and facilities, bid particle accelerators, nuclear power stations and nuclear weapons as a by-product of fission and other physical processes.In literatureSir Thomas Malory uses Alchemy as a motif that underlies the personal, psychological, and aesthetic development of Sir Gareth of Orkney in Le Morte dArthur .Sir Gareths quest parallels the process of Alchemy in that he first undergoes the nigredo phase by defeating the black knight and wearing his armor. After this, Gareth defeats knights representing the four elements, thereby subsuming their power. In fighting and defeating the Red Knight (the overall purpose of his quest) he undergoes and passes the rubedo phase. Gareth, toward the end of his quest, accepts a ring from his paramour, Lyoness, which transforms his armor into being multicolored. This alludes to the panchromatic philosophers stone, and while he is in multicolored armor, he is unbeatable.A play by Ben Jonson, the Alchemist, is a satirical and skeptical take on the subject.Part 2 of Goethes Faust, is full of alchemical symbolism. According to Hermetic Fictions Alchemy and Irony in the Novel (Keele University Press, 1995), by David Meakin, alchemy is also feature in such novels and poems as those by William Godwin, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Emile Zola, Jules Verne, Marcel Proust, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, James Joyce, Gustav Meyrink, Lindsay Clarke, Marguerite Yourcenar, Umberto Eco, Michel Butor, Paulo Coelho, Amanda Quick, Gabriel Garca Marquez and Maria Szepes.Hilary Mantel, in her novel Fludd (1989, Penguin), mentions the spagyric art. After separation, drying out, moistening, dissolving, coagulating, fermenting, comes purification, recombination the creati on of substances the world until now has never beheld. This is the opus contra naturem, this is the spagyric art, this is the Alchymical Wedding.In Dantes Inferno, it is placed within the Tenth ring of the 8th circle.In Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone, there are several(prenominal) references to Nicholas Flamel, and a stone that could turn metal into gold and create an elixir of immortality was sought after by both the villains and Harry and friends, for different reasons.In modern-day artIn the twentieth century alchemy was a profoundly important source of inspiration for the Surrealist artist Max Ernst, who used the symbolism of alchemy to inform and guide his work. M.E. Warlick wrote his Max Ernst and Alchemy describing this relationship in detail.Contemporary artists use alchemy as inspiring subject matter, like Odd Nerdrum, whose wager has been noted by Richard Vine, and the painter Michael Pearce, whose interest in alchemy dominates his work. His works Fama and the A viators Dream particularly express alchemical ideas in a painted allegory.The raising and Demise of Phlogiston, the Birth of Modern Chemistry, and the importanceof MeasurementChemistry (1600A.D. to present)Originated and published by J. J. Becher in the late 17th century journal Opuscula Chymica Rariora, roughly translated as The Work of Rare Chemistry, it was known as the first attempts to explain chemical burning and rusting. Becher said that many common day materials contained a substance called phlogiston, translated from Greek, meaning to set on fire. G. E. Stahl, a medical doctor of the same time period and a proponent of phlogiston, explained in a separate publication thatall inflammable objects contained phlogiston which made it possible for them to burn, and as the object burned, phlogiston was poured out into the air. Wood and coal contained a great deal of it, the ashes left after burning did not.Since communion of scientific discoveries was now common place, Stahl supp orted his theory with meticulous laboratory procedures and qualitative observations. Some of the qualitative observations he made while burning phlogiston well-situated substances are listed below1. Flames extinguish in airtight space because air becomes saturated with phlogiston.2. Charcoal leaves little residue upon burning because it is nearly pure phlogiston.3. Mice die in airtight space because air saturates with phlogiston.Phlogiston was considered to be a massless or near massless substance, since no measurement device had ever existed that could experimentally measure it. Because of this inability to quantify the mass of phlogiston, qualitative experimentation, which was limited to the description of the five human senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch, was the only way in which the phlogiston theory could be supported.Another qualitative record of phlogiston theory was the white powder residue or rust that was found on the surface of tin after it was heated in the air. Also referred to as calx, meaning limestone, it was believed that this is what remained after phlogiston left the tin metal.Working from previous tin experiments, Antoine Lavoisier (1743- 1794A.D.), a master of building preciseness instrumentation, attempted to determine the mass of phlogiston with a mass balance that he had manufactured. After evacuating air from a glass vessel that contained tin Filings, he then sealed and began to heat it on his preciseness mass balance. If the phlogiston theory were correct, he could open the vessel let the phlogiston escape, and finally quantify a value that had eluded scientists for 5 decades.As Lavoisier opened the heated glass vessel, he instead measured a small increase in mass, which went against the phlogiston theory altogether. Although other scientists who held steadfast to the phlogiston theory would make rebuttals that phlogiston must then have a negative mass, these attempts would fall short as other experiments that utilize d precision measurements began to compile. For the first time in history, Lavoisier showed that a carefully designed experiment using precision measurement technology could be used as evidence to disprove a theory. More important than disproving the phlogiston theory was the realization that precision instruments yielded important quantitative information about the field of chemistry.Less than a decade later, Lavoisier published his Elementary Treatise of Chemistry (1789), which is considered the first modern chemistry textbook. In it, one could find a well documented view of The Law of Conservation of Mass and the rejection of the existence of phlogiston, along with various new chemistry theories and laboratory techniques that relied upon BOTH qualitative descriptions and quantitative measurements with the help of measurement technology. It not to say that Lavoisier had all the correct theories within his treatise, but rather that the field of modern day chemistry would emerge, dep ending more heavily upon precision measurements of chemical phenomena rather than the mystical notions of alchemy, like phlogiston and the three mystic treasures.

Racism and Sexism in the Bluest Eye Essay -- American Literature Toni

Toni Morrison, the author of The Bluest Eye, centers her novel around two things beauty and wealth in their relation to race and a brutal assail of a young girl by her father. Morrison explores and exposes these themes in relation to the underlying factors of black society racism and sexism. Every character has a problem to plug with and it involves racism and/or sexism. Whether the characters are the victim or the aggressor, they can do nothing about their problem or condition, peculiarly when concerning gender and race. Morrisons characters are clear at the mercy of preconceived notions maintained by society. Because of these preconceived notions, the racism found in The Bluest Eye is not whites against blacks. Morrison writes about the racism of lighter washy blacks against darker colored blacks and rich blacks against poor blacks. Along with racism within the black community, sexism is exemplified both against women and against men. As Morrison investigates the racism and sexism of the community of Lorain, Ohio, she gives the reader more perspective as to why certain characters do or say certain things.Morrison provides the reader with a light-skinned black character whose racial attitudes affect the poorer, darker blacks in the community, especially the main characters, Claudia MacTeer and Pecola Breedlove. Maureen Peal comes from a rich black family and triggers admiration along with envy in every child at school, including Claudia. Although Maureen is light-skinned, she embodies everything that is considered white, at least by Claudias standards Patent leather shoes with buckles...fluffy sweaters the color of lemon drops tucked into skirts with pleats... brightly colored knee socks with white borders, a brown ... ...m or desert him. It should be understood that Morrisons novel is filled with many characters and many examples of racism and sexism and the foundations for such beliefs in the black community. Every character is the victim or an aggr essor of racism of sexism in all its forms. Morrison succeeds in shedding light on the racism and sexism the black community had to endure on top of racism and sexism outside of the community. She shows that racism and sexism affect everyones preconceived notions regarding race and gender and how powerful and prevalent the notions are. Within the community, racism affects how peoples views of beauty and skin can be skewed by others racist thoughts sexism shapes everyone in the communitys reactions to different forms of rape.Works CitedMorrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. Afterward by Toni Morrison. New York Penguin, 2004.

Arkansas: A Different State Essay -- American History Essays

are A Different State For many pile the very mention of the word Arkansas conjures up images that are unflattering and certainly not very complimentary. To suggest that Arkansas is a different reconcile is to guarantee almost immediate balance from any given audience, but such agreement is usually about the negative aspects of the state instead of the ones making for actual difference. Those negative aspects extend rear end to the early days of the territory. When Cephas Washburn was on his way to Arkansas in 1819 to serve as a missionary to the Cherokees, he stopped at the present target of Vicksburg, Mississippi, to obtain specific directions to the territory, only to be told that the way to get there was wnknown.1 Other remarks pertaining to Arkansas are even less positive it was declared that Arkansas is not part of the world for which Jesus Christ died,2 and as late as 1989 one writer was still able to retrace Arkansas as the least known of the fifty states.3 One of the most famous publications that helped to give Arkansas a negative image was doubting Thomas W. Jacksons On A Slow Train Through Arkansas. Published in 1903, this book contained many descriptions about life in the state, including a pitiful account about a traveler who stopped at a place where there was one atomic number 101, two shoe makers, and a blacksmith. The doctor killed a man. They didnt want to be without a doctor, so they hung one of the shoe makers.4 Jacksons book helped to convince many readers that people in Arkansas wore no shoes.5 Of the well known national writers to comment about Arkansas, surely H.L. Mencken of the Baltimore Sun was most memorable. In August, 1921, his acid-tipped pen described the state of Arkansas as track... ...kansas, Arkansas Historical Quarterly, XXXVIII (Spring 1979), 63. 7 Ibid., 68. 8 Harry S. Ashmore, Arkansas A Bicentennial tarradiddle (New York W.W. Norton, 1978), xvii. 9 Daniel Pool, What Jane Austen Ate and Charles devil Knew From Fox Hunting to Whist the Facts of Daily Life in 19th Century England (New York Simon and Schuster, 1993), 75. 10 Imogene Wolcott, ed., The New England Yankee Cook Book (New York Coward-McCann, Inc., 1939), 161. 11 Ibid., xiii. 12 Williams, et al., 9. 13 Francis Parkman, La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West (New York The New Library of American Literature, 1963), 223. 14 Ibid., 228-229. 15 Ibid., 333. 16 Helen McCully and Eleanor Noderer, eds., The American Heritage Cookbook and Illustrated History of American Eating and Drinking, II (n.p. American Heritage Publishing, 1964), 537.